NIJ Training Course for Forensic DNA Officers of the Court: History and Development of Forensic DNA Testing and Analysis

Click on one of the blue bars on the timeline  to see the noteworthy events of that year.

1865 Gregor Mendel published the results  of his genetic experiments with pea plants  through which he had discovered the fundamental  laws of inheritance and the existence of genes.

1911 Thomas Morgan established the fly  room in which, over the next 17 years,  he conducted genetic experiments with  fruit flies. Morgan and his students;  Alfred Sturdivant, Calvin Bridges, Hermann Muller  and others developed the ideas and provided the proof for the chromosomal theory of heredity,  genetic linkage, chromosomal crossing over,  and non-disjunction. Morgan went  on to win a Nobel prize in 1933.

1975 Frederick Sanger developed DNA sequencing.

1980 Ray White described the  first polymorphic RFLP marker.

1983 The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was  first conceived by Carrie Mullis while he was working at Cetus corporation. The first paper on  the technique was not to be published until 1985.

1984 Sir Alec Jeffries developed the first  DNA profiling test. It involved detection of a multi-locus RFLP pattern. He went on  to publish his findings in Nature in 1985.

1985 Sir Alec Jeffries applied the  analysis of hypervariable regions,  which he dubbed 'many satellite regions' to  genetic identification and paternity testing  analysis of multiple loci would eventually  produce a DNA fingerprint that is specific to  a single individual. This technology is known as  restriction fragment length polymorphisms or RFLP.

1986 DNA testing went public  with Cellmark Diagnostics and  Life Codes Corporation in the United States.  

Also in 1986, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)  was first described in scientific literature.  PCR using locus specific primers allows direct  amplification of loci from small amounts of DNA,  reducing the amount of time and DNA template  required. Speed, Sensitivity and specificity  would soon make PCR the preferred method for  genetic analysis in laboratories worldwide.  

Also in 1986, the human genetics group at Cetis  Corporation developed the PCR technique for a  number of clinical and forensic applications; this  resulted in development of the first commercial  PCR typing kit specifically for forensic use  HLADQ Alpha (or DQA1) about two years later.  

Also in 1986, PCR-based DNA testing (or HLADQ  Alpha) was first used in People vs Pestinicos  to confirm different autopsy samples to be from  the same person. The evidence was accepted by  a civil court. This was also the first use of  any kind of DNA testing in the united states.

1987 Nakamura et. al. described new highly  polymorphic genetic loci with variable numbers  of tandem repeat (VNTR loci) and developed a  series of new VNTR pros for use in RFLP analysis.  

Also in 1987, Jefferies used DNA testing  to help solve the Black Pad murders and  to identify the killer as Colin Pitchfork, who  later confessed to the crimes. This marked the  first case in which DNA evidence was used  to determine the identity of a murderer.  This also marked the first case in which  a prime suspect was exonerated due to DNA  evidence. Also in 1987, DNA profiling was  introduced for the first time in a U.S.  criminal court, based on RFLP analysis performed  by life codes, Tommy Lee Andrews was convicted  of a series of sexual assaults in Orlando,  Florida.

Also in 1987, New York vs. Castro  was the first case in which the admissibility of  DNA was seriously challenged. It set in motion a  string of events that culminated in a call for  certification, accreditation, standardization,  and quality control guidelines for both DNA  laboratories and the general forensic community.

1988 FBI began DNA case work with  single-locus RFLP probes. Also in 1988,  Jeffries et. al. showed that PCR can be used  to faithfully amplify entire VNTR loci allowing  genetic testing to be performed with far less  DNA than previous techniques. Also in 1988,  variable regions of mitochondrial DNA were  analyzed for human identification purposes.

1989 technical working group on DNA  analysis method (TWIG DAM) established.  

Also in 1989, the New York vs Castro case raised  issues over quality assurance of laboratories.  

Also in 1989, trimeric and  tetrameric short tandem repeats  or STRs were found to be highly  polymorphic and easily amplified by PCR.  Size standards prepared by combining amplification  products from individuals of known genotypes  were used to more accurately determine the  number of repeats during data interpretation.  

Also in 1989, Promega first introduced  probes for isotopic detection of VNTR loci.

1990 Population statistics used with RFLP methods  were questioned. Also in 1990, PCR methods started  with DQA1. Also in 1990, K. Kasai and colleagues  published the first paper suggesting the D1S80  locus or PMCT 118 for forensic DNA analysis. D1S80  was subsequently developed by Cetus, subsequently  Roche Molecular Systems Corporation, as a  commercially available forensic DNA typing system.

1991 Fluorescent STR markers first described.  Also in 1991 helix extraction developed.

1992 In response to concerns about the  practice of forensic DNA analysis and  interpretation of the results, the national  research council committee on forensic DNA  (NRC1), published DNA  technology in forensic science.  

Also in 1992, Promega first introduced probes  for non-isotopic detection of VNTR loci.  

Also in 1992, STR polymorphisms  were discovered on the Y chromosome.  

Also in 1992, FBI started case work with PCR DQA1.  

Also in 1992, Thomas Caskey, professor at Baylor  University in Texas, and colleagues published  the first paper suggesting the use of short  tandem repeats for forensic DNA analysis.  Promega Corporation and Perkin Elmer Corporation,  in collaboration with Roche Molecular Systems,  independently developed commercial  kits for forensic DNA STR typing.

1993 Promega released its  first STR detection systems.  

Also in 1993, sex-typing amelogenins developed.

1994 The U.S. congress enacted  the DNA Identification Act.  The combined DNA index system (CODIS) was formally  created. Also in 1994 DNA wars declared over.  

Also in 1994, FBI started case  work with PCR pm. Also in 1994,  Roche Molecular Systems (formerly Cetus),  released a set of five additional DNA markers  

(polymarker) to add to the HLA-DQA1  forensic DNA typing system.  

Also in 1994, Applied Biosystems introduced  the dot blot strip for human identification.  This DNA-based kit developed by Roche Molecular  Systems made it significantly easier for forensic  scientists to employ DNA- based technology.  Applied Biosystems advanced the technology further  with succession of kits based on fluorescent  detection of STR's (short tandem repeats)  that significantly improve discrimination and  sensitivity and later by automating the process.

1996 In response to continued concerns about  the statistical interpretation of forensic  DNA evidence, a second national research council  committee on forensic DNA (NRC2) was convened and  published the evaluation of forensic DNA evidence.  Also in 1996, the FBI started mtDNA testing.  

Also in 1996, in Tennessee vs. Ware, mitochondrial  DNA evidence was first presented in court to help  convict Paul Ware of the rape and murder of a  four-year-old girl mitochondrial DNA extracted  from hairs found at the crime scene and on the  child's body was an exact match to that of Ware.  

Also in 1996, the first multiplex  STR kits became available.

1997 13 core STR loci defined. Also  in 1997, Y chromosome STRs described.

1998 The FBI laboratory established Endis  (National DNA Index System),  which allows federal, state,  and local forensic agencies to share DNA profiles  of convicted offenders and crime scene evidence.

1999 Multiplex STR kits were  validated in numerous labs.  

Also in 1999, the FBI stopped  testing DQA1 pm d1s80.

2000 The FBI and other labs stopped running  RFLP cases and converted to multiplex STRs.

Also in 2000, the Powerplex 16 system,  which allows amplification of all 13 codis loci in  a single reaction, was made available by Promega.

2002 The division of forensic science  laboratory in the Commonwealth of  Virginia became the first state laboratory to  mark 1,000 cold hits from its DNA database.

2003 In Washington vs. Tuilefano and Leuluaialii,  a murder case that was believed to be the first  case in the nation involving dog DNA. The state  of Washington court of appeals ruled that the  science of animal DNA is not as reliable as  that of human DNA and cannot be used as  evidence in court. Also in 2003, a field  DNA test was completed to provide preliminary  confirmation of the identity of Saddam Hussein  less than 24 hours after his capture. A full  test performed in a lab provided confirmation.